Jump to content

1816 United States presidential election

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1816 United States presidential election

← 1812 November 1 – December 4, 1816 1820 →

217 members of the Electoral College
109 electoral votes needed to win
Turnout16.9%[1] Decrease 23.5 pp
 
Nominee James Monroe Rufus King
Party Democratic-Republican Federalist
Home state Virginia New York
Running mate Daniel D. Tompkins N/A[a]
Electoral vote 183 34
States carried 16 3
Popular vote 76,762 17,597[b]
Percentage 68.7% 15.4%[b]

1816 United States presidential election in Massachusetts1816 United States presidential election in New Hampshire1816 United States presidential election in Massachusetts1816 United States presidential election in Rhode Island1816 United States presidential election in Connecticut1816 United States presidential election in New York1816 United States presidential election in Vermont1816 United States presidential election in New Jersey1816 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania1816 United States presidential election in Delaware1816 United States presidential election in Maryland1816 United States presidential election in Virginia1816 United States presidential election in Ohio1816 United States presidential election in Indiana1816 United States presidential election in Kentucky1816 United States presidential election in Tennessee1816 United States presidential election in North Carolina1816 United States presidential election in South Carolina1816 United States presidential election in Georgia1816 United States presidential election in Louisiana
Presidential election results map. Green denotes states won by Monroe and Salmon denotes states won by King. One elector from Delaware and three from Maryland did not vote. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes cast by each state.

President before election

James Madison
Democratic-Republican

Elected President

James Monroe
Democratic-Republican

Presidential elections were held in the United States from November 1 to December 4, 1816. The Democratic-Republican ticket of secretary of state James Monroe and the governor of New York Daniel D. Tompkins defeated the de facto Federalist candidate, the senior U.S. senator from New York Rufus King.[3] Although not formally nominated, King became the last Federalist presidential candidate upon receiving 34 votes from Federalist unpledged electors.[4] In the subsequent election, the Federalists carried three states but did not field their own candidate, instead supporting the incumbent Monroe, before disappearing by the end of the 1820s.[5]

The outgoing President James Madison did not seek re-election to a third consecutive term. Monroe emerged as the Democratic-Republican frontrunner and secured the party's nomination at its congressional nominating caucus in March, narrowly defeating the secretary of war William H. Crawford. The caucus nominated Tompkins for vice president over the governor of Pennsylvania Simon Snyder. The Federalists were disorganized following the end of the War of 1812 and did not hold a caucus or formally select a candidate. King himself remained aloof from the campaign and did nothing to promote his candidacy.[6] No consensus on a vice presidential candidate emerged among the Federalist electors, who scattered their votes between four candidates.[7]

Monroe benefited from the popularity of the outgoing Madison administration and resurgent nationalism following the end of the war. Madison's 1816 message to Congress endorsed an ambitious economic program that robbed the Federalists of much of their platform, most notably chartering the Second Bank of the United States.[8] In spite of significant discontent with the caucus system and the incumbent Virginia dynasty, the Democratic-Republicans were able to avoid a major factional schism in contrast to the previous election. The Federalists meanwhile were demoralized, dogged by accusations of treason, and ill-prepared to mount a national campaign.[9] Most took Monroe's election for granted and did not attempt to prevent it.[4] In three states where electors were chosen by the legislature, Federalists controlled the selection process and appointed unpledged electors who voted for King.[10] Monroe carried the 16 remaining states, including every state where electors were chosen by popular vote, amidst widespread voter apathy and anemic turnout turnout.[11]

Nominations

[edit]

Democratic-Republican Party

[edit]

Caucus

[edit]
James Madison, the incumbent president in 1816, whose second term expired on March 4, 1817

Monroe followed an uncertain path to the nomination in 1816. He had feuded with Madison for most of the preceding three decades, running against him for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 1789 and for the presidency in 1808.[12] Monroe mended relations with Madison during the War of 1812, serving as secretary of state and secretary of war in the latter's administration, and by 1816 was positioning himself as the president's natural successor. Monroe was not personally popular, and his candidacy encountered resistance from northern Democratic-Republicans and others opposed to the extension of the Virginia dynasty. During the winter of 1815–16, New York governor Daniel D. Tompkins and Monroe's successor as secretary of war William H. Crawford emerged as rivals for the presidency.[13]

Popular in his home state, Tompkins could count on the loyal support of the Anti-Clintonian faction of the New York Democratic-Republican Party, but his candidacy struggled to attract a national following. While the New York General Assembly formally nominated him for president on February 14, his lack of name recognition, youth, and volatility were seen as serious disadvantages. By March, Tompkins had seemingly given up all hope of his nomination and instead focussed his efforts on the vice presidency.[14]

Although Crawford publicly denied interest in the presidency, his candidacy quickly gathered significant support from editors and politicians ahead of the party's congressional nominating caucus, and by February had amassed enough strength to present a serious challenge to Monroe. Despite this, Crawford remained hesitant to openly seek the nomination. Having personally assured the secretary of state that he would not be a candidate in 1816, he was reluctant to damage his standing in the party with a fight for the nomination. The continued enthusiasm for his candidacy following his public refusal in February left the war secretary unsure of how to proceed.[15]

Substantial public opinion opposed the caucus system as corrupt, undemocratic, and potentially unconstitutional.[16] While Monroe preferred to retain the caucus system, Crawford's popularity among Democratic-Republicans in Congress made calling a caucus immediately disadvantageous to Monroe's chances of gaining the nomination.[17] When finally an anonymous notice announced the date of the caucus as March 12, the meeting was attended by only 58 members, principally supporters of Crawford. The gathering was judged too small to command public credibility, and on the motion of Jeremiah Morrow of Ohio, the caucus adjourned until March 16. During the recess, Crawford instructed the U.S. senators from Georgia Charles Tait and William W. Bibb to withdraw his candidacy, having decided to postpone his ambitions until 1824. When the caucus met again on the 16th, all but 22 Democratic-Republican members were in attendance. Henry Clay and John W. Taylor again moved that it was "inexpedient" to nominate a presidential candidate, but were voted down; the caucus then nominated Monroe by a vote of 65 to 54.[18]

Monroe owed his majority over Crawford to the 11 Virginians in attendance, who supplied the margin of victory.[18] Crawford received the votes of the New York, New Jersey, Georgia, and Kentucky delegations, notwithstanding their candidate's withdrawal. Of the 22 Democratic-Republican members who did not attend the caucus, the majority were Crawfordites who absented themselves at Crawford's request to allow Monroe's nomination.[19] The narrow margin between the candidates and the presumed sympathies of the 22 absent members encouraged the belief that "Crawford would certainly have been nominated had he made even the slighted effort on his behalf."[20]

In the event of his defeat, Crawford had instructed Tait and Bibb to issue a statement that he had been drafted without his consent; this the senators neglected to do. Crawford would subsequently attribute Monroe's lack of support for his candidacy in 1824 to this embarrassment.[21]

Presidential nomination
Candidate 1st
James Monroe 65
William H. Crawford 54

Nominees

[edit]
Democratic-Republican Party
Democratic-Republican Party
1816 Democratic-Republican Party Ticket
James Monroe Daniel D. Tompkins
for President for Vice President
7th
U.S. Secretary of State
(1811–1817)
4th
Governor of New York
(1807–1817)

Candidates

[edit]
Candidates in this section are sorted by vote count in the congressional nominating caucus
William H. Crawford Daniel D. Tompkins
U.S. secretary of War
(1815–1817)
4th governor of New York
(1807–1817)
LN: March 16, 1816
54 votes
W: March 13, 1816
0 votes
[18] [14]

Vice presidential nomination

[edit]

With the matter of the presidential candidate concluded, the caucus proceeded to nominate Tompkins for vice president; the governor of Pennsylvania Simon Snyder finished a distant second. His presidential aspirations thwarted, Tompkins nevertheless exceeded Monroe's margin over Crawford by 20 votes, defeating Snyder 85 to 30.[22]

Vice Presidential nomination
Candidate 1st
Daniel D. Tompkins 85
Simon Snyder 30

Federalist Party

[edit]

Failure to nominate a ticket

[edit]

The Federalist Party entered the election in disarray. Following peace with Britain in 1815, "the strength that the Federalists had shown in the middle states during the war years melted away."[23] Disconnected state parties lacked a unifying national organization capable of fielding candidates or mounting a national campaign. Where Federalists were more than a negligible presence, charges of disloyalty hounded the party in the wake of the Hartford Convention.[24] This enfeebled party apparatus proved incapable of even selecting a candidate to oppose Monroe: although different names were mentioned in hearsay reports and private correspondence, no caucus was ever held, no consensus among state parties or the Federalist press emerged, and as late as December it remained unclear for whom (if anyone) the Federalist electors from Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, and Massachusetts would vote.[4]

If the Federalists were to choose a candidate, King appeared by far the likeliest possibility. A respected senator and former delegate to the Constitutional Convention who had twice been the party's vice presidential candidate in 1804 and 1808, by 1816 King was the only individual capable of uniting the party's remaining supporters.[4] In February, the New York Evening Post predicted that King and the former Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives Langdon Cheves would be the nominees of the Federalist caucus for president and vice president. However, in the interim, the New York Federalist Party nominated King for governor in the April 1816 election after the party's original candidate, William W. Van Ness, withdrew. King lost the election to Tompkins, and although the Democratic-Republican majority was not overwhelming, the defeat ended any hope of King's nomination for president.[25] While some Federalists suggested the former U.S. senator from Maryland John Eager Howard or even Crawford as possible candidates, no serious movement to nominate either man ever materialized.[4] The Federalists thus entered the fall campaign without a ticket, and with most party leaders resigned to an inevitable Democratic-Republican victory.[26]

Candidates

[edit]
Candidates in this section are sorted by number of electoral votes for president and then alphabetically by last name
Rufus King William H. Crawford John E. Howard
U.S. senator from New York
(1813–1825)
U.S. secretary of War
(1815–1817)
U.S. senator from Maryland
(1796–1803)
NN W: March 16, 1816 DNR
[4] [4][18] [4]

Campaign

[edit]
Election Day in Philadelphia by John Lewis Krimmel (1815)

The failure of the Federalist Party to nominate a ticket effectively conceded the election to Monroe. In New Jersey, Ohio, Rhode Island, Vermont, and in every state south of the Potomac River, the Federalists did not seriously contest the election.[4] Federalist unpledged electors ran in several states, and in Pennsylvania, Monroe's opponents fielded an Independent ticket composed of disaffected Democratic-Republicans and Federalists.[27] Lacking a candidate, the opposition all but ignored ignored the presidential race and instead reserved their energies for state and local elections in which the remnants of regional Federalist strength might still be salvaged.[28] In New York and New Hampshire, where a real effort was made to defeat the Democratic-Republican ticket, the Federalist campaign was distracted and uncoordinated.[4] So great was the sense of inevitability surrounding Monroe's election that most public speculation focused on the composition of his incoming cabinet.[29]

There was some concern among the Democratic-Republicans that their opponents might seek to capitalize on the divisions apparent in the caucus result, and indeed some Federalists sought to do exactly that. In June, the Federalist Charlestown Courier reprinted an anonymous pamphlet, the Exposition of the Motives for Opposing the Nomination of Mr. Monroe for the Office of President of the United States, purportedly the work of the "fifty-four Democrats" who had voted to nominate Crawford in the caucus. Possibly a forgery, the work alleged that party leaders had ruthlessly blocked the advancement of Monroe's rivals in order to extend the Virginia dynasty, irrespective of Monroe's apparent unfitness for office.[30] Several Federalist editors suggested adopting Crawford as the party's candidate for president, but party leaders ultimately failed to agree upon this strategy.[31]

Rufus King was conspicuously absent from the campaign and to all appearances did not consider himself a candidate. Following his gubernatorial defeat, King encouraged his colleagues to concede Monroe's election and suggested the Federalist Party should disband. King's surviving letters do not mention his candidacy; in a letter to Christopher Gore dated November 5, he refers to Monroe as running unopposed. The Federalist press did not refer to King as the Federalist presidential candidate, and as late as December 3, the Boston Daily Advertiser admitted it did not know for whom the 38 Federalist electors chosen from Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, and three Maryland districts would vote. King would not learn of his selection by 34 of these electors until after the electoral colleges had already met.[32]

Results

[edit]

Statistics

[edit]

Monroe won the election decisively, carrying 33 of the 39 constituencies representing 183 electoral votes. He received a majority of the electoral votes from 16 states, including every state where electors were chosen by popular vote. Three states where electors were chosen by the legislature—Connecticut, Delaware, and Massachusetts—and three popular election districts in Maryland chose upledged Federalist electors, representing 38 electoral votes. Four Federalist electors (the three Maryland Federalists and one elector from Delaware) did not vote; the remaining 34 voted for Rufus King.[3]

There was no agreement among the Federalists as to a vice presidential candidate. Twenty-two electors voted for Howard, all from Massachusetts; Connecticut's electors split their votes between the former U.S. senator from Pennsylvania James Ross (5) and the chief justice of the United States John Marshall (4), while three Delaware electors voted for the U.S. senator from Maryland Robert Goodloe Harper. Tompkins received the votes of all 183 Democratic-Republican electors.[33]

Indiana's electoral votes

[edit]

Indiana entered the Union as the nineteenth state on December 11, 1816. When Congress met to count the electoral votes on February 22, 1817, John W. Taylor, the member from New York's 11th congressional district, objected to counting Indiana's electoral votes on the grounds that it had not been a state at the time of the meeting of the electoral colleges. Daniel Cady, representing New York's 14th congressional district, and William Hendricks, the newly-elected member from Indiana, countered that Indiana's representatives to Congress had been seated with the acceptance of the state's constitution, and that it was therefore entitled to participate in the election. Opinion in the House was overwhelmingly in favor of counting Indiana's votes. On the motion of Samuel D. Ingham, the question of the legality of Indiana's votes was postponed indefinitely, and the final electoral count was read with Indiana's votes included.[34]

Electoral results

[edit]
Electoral results
Presidential candidate Party Home state Popular vote(a)(b) Electoral
vote(c)
Running mate
Count Percentage Vice-presidential candidate Home state Electoral vote(c)
James Monroe Democratic-Republican Virginia 76,762 68.70% 183 Daniel D. Tompkins New York 183
Rufus King Federalist New York (d) (d) 34 John E. Howard Maryland 22
James Ross Pennsylvania 5
John Marshall Virginia 4
Robert Goodloe Harper Maryland 3
Unpledged electors Democratic-Republican (n/a) 17,597 15.75% (n/a) (n/a)
Unpledged electors Federalist (n/a) 17,273 15.45% (e) (n/a) (n/a) (e)
Other 97 0.09% Other
Total 111,729 100% 217 217
Needed to win 109 109

Source (Popular Vote): A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825[35]

  • a.^ In nine states, electors were chosen by the legislature rather than by popular vote. The ten states where electors were chosen via popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage.
  • b.^ Popular vote figures from Kentucky and Tennessee are incomplete.
  • c.^ One elector from Delaware and three electors from Maryland did not vote.
  • d.^ King was not formally nominated by the Federalist Party and did not camaign; his electoral votes came from unpledged electors from three states where electors were chosen by the legislature.
  • e.^ Federalist unpledged electors carried three Maryland districts. All three electors subsequently abstained.
Popular vote
Monroe
68.7%
Unpledged electors (DR)
15.7%
Unpledged electors (F)
15.4%
Others
0.1%
Electoral vote—President
Monroe
84.3%
King
15.7%
Electoral vote—Vice President
Tompkins
84.3%
Howard
10.1%
Ross
2.3%
Marshall
1.8%
Harper
1.4%

Results by state

[edit]

Nineteenth century election laws required voters to vote directly for members of the Electoral College rather than for president. This sometimes resulted in small differences in the number of votes cast for electors pledged to the same presidential candidate if some voters did not vote for all the electors nominated by a party, or if one or several electors ran on multiple tickets.[36] In most cases, this table compares the results for the most popular elector pledged to each ticket. For the single-member electoral districts in Kentucky and Maryland, all votes for electors pledged to one party or nominee are counted in cases where multiple electors were pledged to the same presidential candidate. In Pennsylvania, four electors ran on both the Democratic-Republican and the Independent ticket and were elected without opposition; this table counts the result for the most popular elector to run exclusively on the Democratic-Republican ticket (William Gilliland) for Monroe, and the result for the most popular elector to run exclusively on the Independent ticket (Andrew Gregg) for the Others. Returns from Tennessee and one Kentucky district appear to have been lost.

James Monroe
Democratic-Republican
Unpledged electors[c]
Federalist
Others Margin State total Citation
State Electoral
votes
No. % Electoral
votes
No. % Electoral
votes
No. % Electoral
votes
No. %
Connecticut 9 * * 9 * * [3][37]
Delaware 4 * * 4[d] * * [3][38]
Georgia 8 * 8 * * * [3]
Indiana 3 * 3 * * * [3][39]
Kentucky–1[e] 4 no data 4 no data no data no data no data [40][41]
Kentucky–2 4 1,508 100.0 4 1,508 100.0 1,508 [40][42]
Kentucky–3 4 356 100.0 4 356 100.0 356 [40][43]
Louisiana 3 * 3 * * * [40][44]
Maryland–1 1 2 0.74 270 99.26 1[f] 268 98.52 272 [45]
Maryland–2 1 523 73.7 1 184 25.9 3 0.4 339 47.8 710 [46]
Maryland–3 2 1,440 99.0 2 13 0.9 2 0.1 1,427 98.1 1,455 [47]
Maryland–4 2 1,855 95.7 2 83 4.3 1,722 91.4 1,938 [40][48]
Maryland–5 1 693 100.0 1 693 100.0 693 [40][49]
Maryland–6 1 938 67.9 1 435 31.5 9 0.6 503 36.4 1,382 [40][50]
Maryland–7 1 750 100.0 1 750 100.0 750 [51]
Maryland–8 1 1,282 48.9 1,338 51.1 1[f] -56 -2.2 2,620 [40][52]
Maryland–9 1 30 3.3 886 96.7 1[f] -856 -93.4 916 [53]
Massachusetts 22 * * 22 * * [40][54]
New Hampshire 8 15,225 53.3 8 13,338 46.7 1,887 6.6 28,563 [55]
New Jersey 8 5,441 99.0 8 54 1.0 5,387 98.0 5,495 [40][56]
New York 29 * 29 * * * [40][57]
North Carolina 15 9,549 98.4 15 158 1.6 9,391 96.7 9,707 [40][58]
Ohio 8 3,326 84.9 8 593 15.1 2,733 69.7 3,919 [40][59]
Pennsylvania 25 25,749 59.4 25 17,597 40.6 8,152 18.8 43,346 [60]
Rhode Island 4 1,236 100.0 4 1,236 100.0 1,236 [61][62]
South Carolina 11 * 11 * * * [61][63]
Tennessee–1[e] 1 no data 1 no data no data no data no data [61][64]
Tennessee–2[e] 1 no data 1 no data no data no data no data [61]
Tennessee–3[e] 1 no data 1 no data no data no data no data [61]
Tennessee–4[e] 1 no data 1 no data no data no data no data [61][65]
Tennessee–5[e] 1 no data 1 no data no data no data no data [61]
Tennessee–6[e] 1 no data 1 no data no data no data no data [61][66]
Tennessee–7[e] 1 no data 1 no data no data no data no data [61]
Tennessee–8[e] 1 no data 1 no data no data no data no data [61]
Vermont 8 * 8 * * * [61]
Virginia 25 6,859 99.9 25 4 0.1 6,855 99.8 [61][67]
TOTALS 221 76,762 68.7 183 17,273 15.4 38 17,694 15.8 0 59,489 53.3 111,729

States and districts that flipped from Federalist to Democratic-Republican

[edit]

Districts that flipped from Democratic-Republican to Federalist

[edit]

Close states and districts

[edit]

Districts where the margin of victory was less than 5 percentage points:

  1. Maryland's 8th electoral district, 2.2% (56 votes)

States where the margin of victory was less than 10 percentage points:

  1. New Hampshire, 6.3% (1,813 votes)

Electoral votes by state

[edit]
State Electoral
votes
For President For Vice President
JMTooltip James Monroe RKTooltip Rufus King B DTTooltip Daniel D. Tompkins JHTooltip John Eager Howard JRTooltip James Ross (Pennsylvania politician) JMTooltip John Marshall RHTooltip Robert Goodloe Harper B
Connecticut 9 9 5 4
Delaware 4 3 1 3 1
Georgia 8 8 8
Indiana 3 3 3
Kentucky 12 12 12
Louisiana 3 3 3
Maryland 11 8 3 8 3
Massachusetts 22 22 22
New Hampshire 8 8 8
New Jersey 8 8 8
New York 29 29 29
North Carolina 15 15 15
Ohio 8 8 8
Pennsylvania 25 25 25
Rhode Island 4 4 4
South Carolina 11 11 11
Tennessee 8 8 8
Vermont 8 8 8
Virginia 25 25 25
TOTAL 221 183 34 4 183 22 5 4 3 4
TO WIN 109 109

Maps

[edit]

Electoral college selection

[edit]
Method of choosing electors State(s)
Electors are chosen by the state legislature
Electors are chosen by voters in a statewide election
Electors are chosen by voters from single- or multi-member districts

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ No candidate was formally nominated. John Eager Howard received 22 votes, James Ross 5, John Marshall 4, Robert Goodloe Harper 3.[2]
  2. ^ a b Votes cast for Federalist unpledged electors
  3. ^ Except as noted, the Federalist electors voted for Rufus King.
  4. ^ One elector did not vote; the three remaining electors voted for Rufus King.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Returns from this district appear to have been lost.
  6. ^ a b c Did not vote
  1. ^ "National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present". United States Election Project. CQ Press.
  2. ^ Dubin 2002, p. 25.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Dubin 2002, p. 22.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Turner 2002, p. 307.
  5. ^ Howe 2007, pp. 146, 95.
  6. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 219–20, 224–25.
  7. ^ Dubin 2002, p. 25n1.
  8. ^ Howe 2007, pp. 80–81.
  9. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 211, 228–29.
  10. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 230.
  11. ^ Turner 2002, p. 308.
  12. ^ Howe 2007, p. 91.
  13. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 212–14.
  14. ^ a b Skeen 2003, p. 214.
  15. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 216–17.
  16. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 217.
  17. ^ Turner 2002, p. 303.
  18. ^ a b c d Skeen 2003, p. 219.
  19. ^ Turner 2002, p. 305.
  20. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 220.
  21. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 219–20.
  22. ^ Turner 2002, pp. 305–6.
  23. ^ Howe 2007, pp. 89–90.
  24. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 228–29, 211.
  25. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 222, 224.
  26. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 224.
  27. ^ Higginbotham, Sanford W. (1952). The Keystone in the Democratic Arch: Pennsylvania Politics, 1800–1816. Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. p. 314.
  28. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 226.
  29. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 229.
  30. ^ Turner 2002, p. 306.
  31. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 225.
  32. ^ Skeen (2003), pp. 224–25; Turner (2002), pp. 307–8.
  33. ^ "1816 Electoral College Results". National Archives. Retrieved February 22, 2025.
  34. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 230–31.
  35. ^ "A New Nation Votes".
  36. ^
  37. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Connecticut 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  38. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Delaware 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  39. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Indiana 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  40. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Dubin 2002, p. 23.
  41. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Kentucky 1816 Electoral College, District 1". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  42. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Kentucky 1816 Electoral College, District 2". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  43. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Kentucky 1816 Electoral College, District 3". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  44. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Louisiana 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  45. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 1". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  46. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 2". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  47. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 3". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  48. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 4". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  49. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 5". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  50. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 6". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  51. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 7". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  52. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 8". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  53. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 9". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  54. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Massachusetts 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  55. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "New Hampshire 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  56. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "New Jersey 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  57. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "New York 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  58. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "North Carolina 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  59. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Ohio 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  60. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Pennsylvania 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  61. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Dubin 2002, p. 24.
  62. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Rhode Island 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  63. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "South Carolina 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  64. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Tennessee 1816 Electoral Carter, Greene, Hawkins, Sullivan and Washington Counties". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  65. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Tennessee 1816 Electoral College, Bledsoe, Franklin, Jackson, Overton, Rhea, Warren and White Counties". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  66. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Tennessee 1816 Electoral College, Bedford, Davidson and Rutherford Counties". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  67. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Virginia 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]